Selective inhibition of the collagenolytic activity of human cathepsin K by altering its S2 subsite specificity

The primary specificity of papain-like cysteine proteases (family C1, clan CA) is determined by S2-P2 interactions. Despite the high amino acid sequence identities and structural similarities between cathepsins K and L, only cathepsin K is capable of cleaving interstitial collagens in their triple helical domains. To investigate this specificity, we have engineered the S2 pocket of human cathepsin K into a cathepsin L-like subsite. Using combinatorial fluorogenic substrate libraries, the P1-P4 substrate specificity of the cathepsin K variant, Tyr67Leu/Leu205Ala, was determined and compared with those of cathepsins K and L. The introduction of the double mutation into the S2 subsite of cathepsin K rendered the unique S2 binding preference of the protease for proline and leucine residues into a cathepsin L-like preference for bulky aromatic residues. Homology modeling and docking calculations supported the experimental findings. The cathepsin L-like S2 specificity of the mutant protein and the integrity of its catalytic site were confirmed by kinetic analysis of synthetic di- and tripeptide substrates as well as pH stability and pH activity profile studies. The loss of the ability to accept proline in the S2 binding pocket by the mutant protease completely abolished the collagenolytic activity of cathepsin K whereas its overall gelatinolytic activity remained unaffected. These results indicate that Tyr67 and Leu205 play a key role in the binding of proline residues in the S2 pocket of cathepsin K and are required for its unique collagenase activity.     

Protease-activated receptor 2 mediates eosinophil infiltration and hyperreactivity in allergic inflammation of the airway

Trypsin and mast cell tryptase can signal to epithelial cells, myocytes, and nerve fibers of the respiratory tract by cleaving proteinase-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). Since tryptase inhibitors are under development to treat asthma, a precise understanding of the contribution of PAR2 to airway inflammation is required. We examined the role of PAR2 in allergic inflammation of the airway by comparing OVA-sensitized and -challenged mice lacking or overexpressing PAR2. In wild-type mice, immunoreactive PAR2 was detected in airway epithelial cells and myocytes, and intranasal administration of a PAR2 agonist stimulated macrophage infiltration into bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. OVA challenge of immunized wild-type mice stimulated infiltration of leukocytes into bronchoalveolar lavage and induced airway hyperreactivity to inhaled methacholine. Compared with wild-type animals, eosinophil infiltration was inhibited by 73% in mice lacking PAR2 and increased by 88% in mice overexpressing PAR2. Similarly, compared with wild-type animals, airway hyperreactivity to inhaled methacholine (40 micro g/ml) was diminished 38% in mice lacking PAR2 and increased by 52% in mice overexpressing PAR2. PAR2 deletion also reduced IgE levels to OVA sensitization by 4-fold compared with those of wild-type animals. Thus, PAR2 contributes to the development of immunity and to allergic inflammation of the airway. Our results support the proposal that tryptase inhibitors and PAR2 antagonists may be useful therapies for inflammatory airway disease.     

Successive episodes of synapses production in the developing rat nucleus tractus solitarii

In the rat nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS), synaptogenesis is thought to occur both pre- and postnatally. The present study was performed to precisely define the timetable of synapse formation in the NTS after birth. Changes in synapse morphology and densities were analyzed between postnatal day 3 (P3) and P28 using electron microscopy and ethanol phosphotungstic acid (E-PTA) staining. The proportion of morphologically immature synapses was high at P3 (38%) and P14 (30%) and low (8-14%) at the other ages investigated (P7, P21, and P28). Synaptic density significantly increased between P7 and P14 (60%) and between P21 and P28 (54%), but did not significantly change between P3 and P7 and between P14 and P21. Mean synaptic diameter also increased over the first postnatal month. Significant increases in synaptic size occurred between P3 and P7 (28%) and between P14 and P21 (15%). The present data indicate that, in the NTS, synaptogenesis occurs over a protracted period of time and involves distinct successive episodes of synapse production.     

Export of Thermus thermophilus cytoplasmic beta-glycosidase via the E. coli Tat pathway

The Tat pathway is distinct from the Sec machinery given its unusual capacity to export folded proteins, which contain a twin-arginine (RR) signal peptide, across the plasma membrane. The functionality of the Tat pathway has been demonstrated for several Gram-negative and Gram-positive mesophilic bacteria. To assess the specificity of the Tat system, and to analyze the capacity of a mesophilic bacterial Tat system to translocate cytoplasmic proteins from hyperthermophilic bacteria, we fused the Thermus thermophilus beta-glycosidase (Glc) to the twin-arginine signal peptide of the E. coli TorA protein. When expressed in E. coli, the thermophilic RR-Glc chimera was successfully synthesized and efficiently translocated into the periplasm of the wild type strain. In contrast, the beta-glycosidase accumulated within the cytoplasm of all the tat mutants analyzed. The beta-glycosidase synthesized in these strains exhibited thermophilic properties. These results demonstrated, for the first time, the capacity of the E. coli Tat system to export cytoplasmic hyperthermophilic protein, implying an important potential of the Tat system for the production of thermostable enzymes used in bioprocessing applications.     

Carbon flux analysis in a pantothenate overproducing Corynebacterium glutamicum strain

Carbon flux analysis during a pseudo-stationary phase of metabolite accumulation in a genetically engineered strain of Corynebacterium glutamicum, containing plasmids leading to over-expression of the ilvBNCD and panBC operons, has identified the basic metabolic constraints governing the potential of this bacterium to produce pantothenate. Carbon flux converging on pyruvate (75% of glucose uptake) is controlled by anabolic precursor requirements and NADPH demand provoking high carbon loss as CO₂ via the pentose pathway. Virtually all the flux of pyruvate is directed into the branched pathway leading to both valine and pantothenate production, but flux towards valine is tenfold higher than that transformed to pantothenate, indicating that significant improvements will only be obtained if carbon flux at the ketoisovalerate branchpoint can be modulated.     

Substrate activation in acetylcholinesterase induced by low pH or mutation in the pi-cation subsite

Substrate inhibition is considered a defining property of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), whereas substrate activation is characteristic of butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). To understand the mechanism of substrate inhibition, the pH dependence of acetylthiocholine hydrolysis by AChE was studied between pH 5 and 8. Wild-type human AChE and its mutants Y337G and Y337W, as well as wild-type Bungarus fasciatus AChE and its mutants Y333G, Y333A and Y333W were studied. The pH profile results were unexpected. Instead of substrate inhibition, wild-type AChE and all mutants showed substrate activation at low pH. At high pH, there was substrate inhibition for wild-type AChE and for the mutant with tryptophan in the pi-cation subsite, but substrate activation for mutants containing small residues, glycine or alanine. This is particularly apparent in the B. fasciatus AChE. Thus a single amino acid substitution in the pi-cation site, from the aromatic tyrosine of B. fasciatus AChE to the alanine of BuChE, caused AChE to behave like BuChE. Excess substrate binds to the peripheral anionic site (PAS) of AChE. The finding that AChE is activated by excess substrate supports the idea that binding of a second substrate molecule to the PAS induces a conformational change that reorganizes the active site.     

Trophic and steroidogenic effects of water deprivation on the adrenal gland of the adult female rat

The effects of a 3-day water deprivation were studied in adult female rats in order to know what are the different zones of the adrenal gland and the hormonal factors involved in the growth and the activity of the adrenal gland. Water deprivation significantly increased plasma renin activity (PRA), plasma Angiotensin II (AII), vasopressin (AVP), epinephrine, aldosterone and corticosterone concentrations but did not modify the plasma adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) level. Water deprivation significantly increased the absolute weight of the adrenal capsule containing the zona glomerulosa without modification of the density of cells per area unit suggesting that the growth of the adrenal capsule was due to a cell hyperplasia of the zona glomerulosa. Water deprivation significantly increased the density of AII type 1 (AT₁) receptors in the adrenal capsule but did not modify the density of AII type 2 (AT₂) receptors in the adrenal capsule and core containing the zona fasciculata, the zona reticularis and the medulla. The treatment of dehydrated female rats with captopril, which inhibits the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in order to block the production of AII, significantly decreased the absolute weight of the adrenal capsule, plasma aldosterone and the density of AT₁ receptors in the adrenal capsule. The concentration of corticosterone in the plasma, the density of AT₂ receptors and the density of cells per unit area in the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal capsule were not affected by captopril-treatment. In conclusion, these results suggest that AII seems to be the main factor involved in the stimulation of the growth and the secretion of aldosterone by the adrenal capsule containing the zona glomerulosa during water deprivation. The low level of plasma ACTH is not involved in the growth of the adrenal gland but is probably responsible for the secretion of corticosterone by the zona fasciculata.     

Development of a phenomenological modeling approach for prediction of growth and xanthan gum production using Xanthomonas campestris

An unstructured kinetic model for xanthan production is described and fitted to experimental data obtained in a stirred batch reactor. The culture medium was composed of several nitrogen sources (soybean hydrolysates, ammonium and nitrate salts) consumed sequentially. The model proposed is able to describe this sequential consumption of nitrogen sources, the consumption of inorganic phosphate and carbon, the evolution of biomass, and production of xanthan. The parameter estimation has been performed by fitting the kinetic model in differential form to experimental data. Runs of the model for simulating xanthan gum production as a function of the initial concentration of inorganic phosphate have shown the positive effect of phosphate limitation on xanthan yield, though diminishing rates of production. The model was used to predict the kinetic parameters for a medium containing a 2-fold lower initial phosphate concentration. When tested experimentally, the measured fermentation parameters were in close agreement with the predicted model values, demonstrating the validity of the model.